STRUCTURE OF HAFNIUM ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ( September 2014) Historically the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories, which could not lead to the nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged UP and DOWN quarks , discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig, I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism ” (2003), which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons The paper was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). In this photo I present the laws of electromagnetism governing the nuclear structure, but a student of Einstein (Dr Th. Kalogeropoulos) criticised my discovery of nuclear force and structure by believing that the nuclear structure is due to the invalid relativity. In fact, one can see the 9 charged quarks in proton and the 12 ones in neutron able to give the charge distributions in nucleons for revealing the strong electromagnetic force for the nuclear binding in the correct nuclear structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. You can see my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS . Note that according to my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS the mass defect in the nuclear structure is due to the photon mass of the emitting dipolic photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) organised by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri , who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus. Nevertheless today many physicist continue to apply not the well-established laws but the various fallacious nuclear structure models which lead to complications. Natural hafnium (Hf) consists of five stable isotopes (Hf-176, Hf-177, Hf-178, Hf-179, and Hf-180) and one very long-lived radioisotope, Hf-174, with a half-life of 2×1015 years. In addition, there are 30 other known radionuclides, the most stable of which is Hf-182 with a half-life of 8.9×106 years. No other radioisotope has a half-life over 1.87 days. Most isotopes have half-lives under 1 minute. There are also 27 known nuclear isomers. The core of hafnium , the Hf-144, with 72 protons and 72 neutrons (even number) forms a structure of high symmetry giving the 5 stable isotopes. In general, since the additional p72n72 is a vertical system with S =0, the structure of Hf-144 (core) has S =0 with six horizontal planes of opposite spins . Moreover two horizontal squares of opposite spins like the -HSQ and +HSQ exist under and over the structure of the six planes. They give also S = 0, because the two deuterons of the down horizontal square (-HSQ) have S = -2 and the two deuterons of the up horizontal square (+HSQ) have S = +2. Of course several protons of such a core form blank positions able to receive 36 extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions in the heavier stable Hf-180. Under this condition the stable Hf-176 with S =0 based on the Hf-144 with S =0 has 32 extra neutrons of opposite spins. On the other hand in the heavier unstable nuclides the more extra neutrons than those of the stable nuclides (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ''' '''STRUCTURE OF Hf-154, Hf-156, Hf-158, Hf-160, Hf-162, Hf-164, Hf-166, Hf-168, Hf-170, Hf-172, Hf-174, Hf-176, Hf-178, Hf-180, Hf-182, Hf-184, Hf-186 AND Hf-188 WITH S =0 In this group including the stable structures of Hf-176, Hf-178, and Hf-180 with S =0 the structure of the unstable nuclides is based also on the structure of Hf-144 (core) with S =0. For example the unstable Hf-174 with S= 0 has 30 extra neutrons of opposite spins. These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron, but their small number cannot give enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the stable structures of Hf-176, Hf-178 and Hf-180 the greater number of extra neutrons gives enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. Whereas in the unstable Hf-182 with S=0 the two more extra neutrons than those of the stable Hf-180 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' ' STRUCTURE OF Hf-155, Hf-157, Hf-159, Hf-161, Hf-163, Hf-165, Hf-167, Hf-169, Hf-173, Hf-175, Hf-177, Hf-181 Hf-183 AND HF-185 WITH NEGATIVE SPINS' After a careful analysis I found that the structure of the above nuclides (including the stable structure of Hf-177 with S = -7/2) is based on another structure of Hf-144 (core) having S =-2 . In this case the one deuteron of the up square (+HSQ) changes the spin from S =+1 to S =-1 giving S = -2, because it goes to the down horizontal square (-HSQ) for making horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the down square. For example the unstable Hf-175 with S = -5/2 of 31 extra neutrons has 15 extra neutrons of positive spins and 16 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -2 + 15(+1/2) + 16(-1/2) = -5/2 These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron, but their small number cannot give enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the stable structures of Hf-177 with S= -7/2 the greater number of extra neutrons gives enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. ' ' STRUCTURE OF Hf-153, Hf-171, AND Hf-179 WITH POSITIVE SPINS After a careful analysis I found that the structures of such nuclides ( including the stable Hf-179 with S =+9/2) is based on another structure of the Hf-144 (core) having S = +2 . In this case the one deuteron of the down square (-HSQ) changes the spin from S = -1 to S = +1 giving S = +2, because it goes to the up horizontal square (+HSQ) for making horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the up square. For example the unstable Hf-171 with S = +7/2 of 27 extra neutrons has 15 extra neutrons of positive spins and 12 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = +2 + 15(+1/2) + 12(-1/2) = +7/2 These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron, but their small number cannot give enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the stable structures of Hf-179 with S= +9/2 the greater number of extra neutrons gives enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. Category:Fundamental physics concepts